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The Glass Menagerie

1. Discuss the differences between Tom Wingfield as narrator and Tom Wingfield as one of the four characters in the story he narrates.

Answer: The most obvious difference is that Tom the narrator knows a great deal more than Tom the character in the story. As narrator, Tom has greater perspective and insight into the troubled lives of his mother and sister, and even himself. As one of the characters in the story, Tom lacks this insight; he is angry and impatient with his mother because he sees her as a rather foolish and embarrassing old woman who is making his sister' s life unbearable by her attempts to push her into life, and who is a constant block to his own aspirations as a poet and adventurer. He feels persecuted, by his mother and by the factory where he works, and indeed, by the world in general. But as narrator, Tom is able to see the gallantry and beauty in Amanda's character. He is able to see that although she has deeply hurt him and Laura, she has done everything because she loves them deeply. She has made mistakes, but they are mistakes born of the deepest feelings a mother can have for her children. In the heat of the situation, Tom can never fully realize this. Removed from the situation by time and distance, Tom does realize this, and is able to show his mother the compassion he was never able to show her when he lived under the same roof with her. The proof of this compassion is the play he narrates. His mother is not the villain of it; she is one of four lonely, decent people caught in a trap not even of her own making.

Another basic difference between Tom as narrator and as character is his relationship with the outside world. As a character in the story, Tom is essentially concerned with his own dilemma; he sees the outside world as some kind of glorious place where he will be able to realize his potential, if only he can break through the trap of his family and the warehouse where he works. He sees the outside world as offering him limitless horizons. And importantly, he sees the outside world as somehow a realistic place as opposed to the houseful of illusions around him. As narrator, Tom has revised all these concepts rather radically. As narrator, Tom knows that the outside world does not offer limitless horizons; he notes the coldness and indifference in the outside world. Perhaps, most importantly, he has come to see that the Wingfield family is not the only family lost in illusions. He has come to see that illusion is one of the great defense mechanisms of human beings everywhere. He points to the Paradise Dance Hall where couples go every night to blot out the cruel realities of life; but he expands his allusion further. The whole world is taking refuge in illusion, refuge from the Depression, and from the oncoming, inescapable fact of war. Thus, Tom as narrator is able to do what he could never do as character; he can relate the personal dilemma of his family to a much greater dilemma. He is able to see the desperate efforts of the Wingfields to hide behind illusions as a microcosm of the entire world's efforts to hide from the blunt and hard realities of life in the late 1930s. Finally, Tom as narrator realizes something he could never realize as a character in the story: he knows that he can never really escape from Amanda and Laura the way his father did. As a character in the story, Tom has high hopes of achievement and believes that he will be able to remove his mother and sister from his mind, once he has broken free of them. But Tom the narrator knows once and for all that he can never leave his family. He will be emotionally tied to them all his life. The story he narrates is ample proof of this. Tom is like Coleridge's ancient mariner, going from one listener to another, attempting to expurgate the guilt he feels at having abandoned Laura and Amanda. He knows that he is more deeply attached to them than he could ever realize when he was living with them.

2. How is the glass menagerie a metaphor for each of the four characters in the play?

Answer: Each of the four characters in The Glass Menagerie employs a figurative illusionary world in order to cope with the harsh facts of life which oppress him. For Laura, there is a literal glass menagerie which acts as the haven for her from the cruel, bewildering world of secretarial schools and cheap tenements. Laura finds two things in her world of glass figures which she cannot find in the outside world: she finds a world of beauty and delicacy, and she finds a place where she is needed. She is the keeper of the glass menagerie; the little world of glass animals depends upon her. In a real world marked by its coldness and impersonality, and much too mammoth and overwhelming for Laura, she finds meaning by creating a miniature world which is tender, delicate and full of creatures she can sympathize with and care for. It is an illusionary world, but it gradually becomes more real for Laura than any thing or anybody in the outside world. At the conclusion, when Jim O'Connor, the emissary from the outside world, has abandoned her, Laura retreats into her illusionary world forever.

Amanda, too, has a kind of glass menagerie to which she clings for a respite from the overwhelming reality of life in a dingy St. Louis apartment. Amanda's "glass menagerie" is the world of her youth about which she constantly reminisces. It is the world of seventeen gentleman callers in one day, of balls and the scent of magnolia and the color of jonquils. Although Amanda is never as lost in her illusionary world as is Laura, she uses it in much the same way. It is a kind of haven for her. It refreshes her and sustains her because it reminds her that once in her life there were beauty and gentility. But Amanda cannot fully escape into this world, because, unlike Laura, she has responsibilities. She has to maintain a family in the outer world. It is part of the tragic irony of the play that Amanda's allusions to this world of her youth only serve to irritate and bewilder her son Tom, who can only see the uselessness of her illusions without perceiving why these illusions are so vital to Amanda's existence.

Tom Wingfield also has his "glass menagerie." It is his dream of adventure, which is manifested in the play by two symbols: the movies and the Merchant Marine. Superficially, Tom seems to be a realist who knows that he must escape from the desperate family situation if he is ever to find his niche in life. But when Amanda accuses him of being a dreamer, she is actually quite right. Tom's ability to face the outside world is really not much greater than Laura's and possibly not as strong as Amanda's. Tom sees that Laura is living in a world of illusions, and he also perceives Amanda' s illusionary world of her youth; but not until he is the narrator is he able to see that his dreams of adventure were his compensation for the humdrum reality which was stifling him at home and in the factory. The movies represent one kind of adventure-vicarious thrills; the Merchant Marine represents another kind where he will live his own adventures. Ultimately neither works. Tom comes to see that he can never wholly absorb himself into his dreams the way Laura can into her menagerie; nor can he draw the kind of sustenance from them the way Amanda can. As narrator, Tom realizes that his world of illusions will never be potent enough to crowd out the real world, of a mother abandoned by her husband and tragically trying to hold her family together, and a sister physically and emotionally crippled.

Jim O'Connor seems to be the most realistic member of the quartet, but he, too, possesses an illusion which makes reality more bearable. He calls his "the cycle of democracy." The American Dream, which is a kind of national illusion, becomes Jim's private illusion. It is the illusion of rapid and spectacular success for the personable go-getter. Jim is totally committed to this illusion; he is working in the factory by day and going to school at night, preparing himself for the magic moment when his "cycle" will catapult him to success. Maybe someday it will, but for the past six years nothing has happened. Nevertheless, Jim goes on hoping, keeping up a brave and cheerful exterior, attempting never to question himself or his illusion too deeply. Compared to the illusions of Laura, Amanda, and Tom, Jim's is the most positive and has the greatest chance of being realized in the outside world, because it is not only connected with, but fostered by, the outer world.

Finally, the outside world is a world lost in illusions also. Outside the Wingfield apartment is the Paradise Dance Hall, a kind of enlarged glass menagerie which dispenses moments of radiance and beauty to men and women who try to forget, for a little while, how bleak and despairing their lives really are. And outside the Paradise Dance Hall is a world fleeing in one illusion or another from the terrible truth of a Depression and a war which is rapidly enveloping the world. The Wingfield family becomes a kind of microcosm for the entire world, which in one way or another attempts to find solace and meaning in illusions of peace, prosperity and happiness, from the chilling reality of war, poverty and misery. In the final analysis the glass menagerie is a metaphor not only for the four characters in the play, but for the very world in which they live.

A Streetcar Named Desire

1. Compare the characters of Stella and Blanche.

Answer: The most obvious comparison between Stella and Blanche is that they are sisters. But this blood relationship suggests other similarities between the two women. They are both part of the final generation of a once aristocratic but now moribund family. Both manifest a great deal of culture and sensitivity, and because of this, both seem out of place in Elysian Fields. Blanche of course is much more of an anachronism than Stella, who has for the most part adapted to the environment of Stanley Kowalski. Finally, both Stella and Blanche are or have been married. It is in their respective marriages that we can begin to trace the profound differences between these two sisters.

Where Blanche's marriage proved catastrophic to her, Stella's marriage seems to be fulfilling her as a woman. Blanche's marriage to a young homosexual, and the subsequent tragedy that resulted from her discovery of her husband's degeneracy and her inability to help him, have been responsible for much of the perversity in her life; Stella's marriage to Stanley, on the other hand, seems to have given her the happiness and fulfillment which Blanche has never known. From the wreckage of her marriage, Blanche has attempted to fill a guilt-ridden life of loneliness with promiscuity. As a result she has become neurotic and alcoholic, slipping increasingly into insanity. Stella, meanwhile, has been thriving in a profane, coarse, but wholly satisfying sexual relationship with Stanley. Thus, superficially, the main contrast between Stella and Blanche seems to be one between sickness and health, perversity and normality, particularly in the sexual relationship. Stella is thriving; Blanche is disintegrating. But a closer examination of these sisters begins to show more complex differences in their characters and situations. Blanche is disintegrating for reasons other than sexual perversity, and Stella is paying a rather steep price for her so-called "normal" life with Stanley.

Blanche is committed to a tradition and a way of life that has become anachronistic in the world of Stanley Kowalski. She is committed to a code of civilization that died with her ancestral home, Belle Reve. Stella recognizes this tradition and her sister's commitment to it, but she has chosen to relinquish it and to come to terms with a world that has no place for it. In a sense, Blanche is fanatic in her refusal to relinquish her concept of herself as a lady belonging to a cultured and cultivated tradition, even though that tradition is all but dissipated. Stella, on the other hand, is the conformist, who has allowed herself to be pulled from the pillars of Belle Reve and has adapted to her new existence with the vital, amoral, uncouth Stanley. But Stella has had to pay a high price for salvation: the submerging of every element in her character that makes her similar to Blanche-personal dignity, gentility, and the sense of herself as a lady. At the end of the play, Stella takes Eunice's advice and goes on living with Stanley even though she knows he has destroyed her sister. But this is not as much a triumph on Stella's part as it is a capitulation to the way things are. Blanche has been destroyed because of her commitment to some rather shopworn but still noble ideals; Stella will thrive because she has paid a price Blanche could never pay: capitulation. Stella has chosen life, but life bereft of everything that, according to Blanche, makes it meaningful. These choices, rather than their sexual relationships, are the main points of contrast between the sisters.

2. Compare the relationship between Blanche and Mitch with the relationship between Laura and Jim in The Glass Menagerie.

Answer: Blanche and Laura are both in desperate need of love and tenderness. Both, because of character and circumstances, are very much out of place in their environments, and both have a kind of fragile beauty. Into the life of each comes a "gentleman caller" who seems able to effect her salvation by supplying the tenderness she needs. Although Mitch and Jim have similar roles with respect to Blanche and Laura, they are quite different as individuals. Mitch is a much weaker person than Jim. Despite semi- conscious feelings of inadequacy, Jim has a purpose and direction in life; and he is working hard to achieve these. He has positive hopes for his future and refuses to let the present discourage him. He is a much more positive and vital person than Laura, who is awkward, shy, and painfully introverted. Mitch, on the other hand, is a timid, unsure young man, who is almost wholly dependent on his aged mother. His hopes for the future are bleak. He lacks completely the bravado and vitality of Jim, and is in fact similar to Laura in his shyness and introversion. Where Jim takes the initiative in the relationship with Laura. Mitch is the very reluctant suitor who is literally manipulated by Blanche. Nevertheless, the roles of Mitch and Jim are similar in that they are desperately needed by the women with whom they become involved.

In both relationships, the woman is almost brought our of her dilemma by her suitor. Laura comes to the point where she can recognize that the broken unicorn is less of a freak and will be happier, looking like the rest of the little glass horses. Her statement suggests that she too is ready to come out of the glass menagerie and face the world. Blanche exclaims that God has heard her prayers when it seems that Mitch is truly serious about her and will soon ask her to marry him. But in the cases of both Laura and Blanche, salvation is never achieved, and destruction follows rapidly. Jim abandons Laura for two reasons, one external and the other quite internal. The most obvious reason for his leaving her is his engagement to another girl; but were Jim not engaged, he could still never become involved with Laura and retain his dreams of the future. Jim needs someone to help him bolster his image of himself; he needs a strong, positive girl who will help to inspire in him the confidence he needs. Laura is a person with whom Jim can be intensely sympathetic, but who is simply too adequate for him. In some ways she reminds him of the weakness in himself which he is so boisterously trying to overcome. To become any further involved with her would be disastrous for him. While Jim thus abandons Laura because of his future, Mitch casts Blanche aside because of her past. When he is confronted with Blanche's past life, Mitch rejects her, because the purity he has so rigorously respected has turned out to be a blatant lie, and because now he views her as unfit to bring into the same house with his mother.

Although Jim and Mitch are both ultimately unable to help Laura and Blanche, the effects of their failures upon themselves vary greatly. Even though Jim is somewhat shaken by his encounter with Laura, he is not crushed by what happens. Hurt and embarrassed, he awkwardly leaves and hurries to his fiancee, Betty, where he will find the solace and inspiration he needs. In all probability, Jim will ultimately forget Laura, even though she will never forget him. Mitch does not escape from his relationship with Blanche this easily. First of all, he has been more closely involved with Blanche that has Jim with Laura. Secondly, and most importantly, Mitch has needed Blanche almost as much as she has needed him. She has made him feel like a man for the first time in his life. When he abandons her, he gives up this feeling of manhood and again becomes the boy dependent upon his mother. Perhaps Mitch has no other choice, but the fact remains that he is hopelessly crushed by the events that made him reject Blanche.

Finally, Laura and Blanche share essentially the same fate after they have been abandoned by their respective gentlemen callers. Each retreats, probably forever, into an illusionary world of her own creation. As Laura is comforted by her mother, she figuratively slips back into the beautiful and permanent world of the glass menagerie, where reality will be unable to hurt her again. Blanche, too, is comforted as she rejects the outer world for the last time. She goes off to the institution on the arm of the kindly doctor. Stanley has snapped her last connection with the outer world, but Mitch's rejection has paved the way. Like Laura, Blanche takes her ultimate comfort from her inner world.

Cat On A Hot Tin Roof

1. Discuss the moral integrity of Cat On A Hot Tin Roof.

Answer: Cat On A Hot Tin Roof is a play peopled with individuals who seem to possess no moral statute whatever. The characters range from hypocrites to alcoholics, with strong elements of perversity, obscenity, vulgarity, mendacity and disease further contaminating both characters and situations. The action of the play essentially involves sexuality being regulated by both Mae and Margaret, in the face of Big Daddy's imminent death, to obtain material wealth. Nevertheless, in the midst of all this, and even because of it, Cat On A Hot Tin Roof is a profoundly moral play. It is moral because its ultimate emphasis is on life, and although it deals with death, its movement is away from death.

Margaret and Big Daddy Pollitt are both struggling to save Brick from the kind of living death he has chosen for himself, and their most basic reason for trying to do this is their love for him. In the midst of all this viciousness and hypocrisy, certain tender and true relationships are affirmed: the relationship between Margaret and Brick, and the relationship between Brick and Big Daddy. Big Daddy and Margaret do not pretend to be other than what they are. They admit to many evils, but they are honest and they are vitally alive, and above all, they are fighting a highly moral battle for the life of the man they love. Beneath all the sound and fury, the play points to the simplest and most moral of all human truths: that there is meaning in life, that one must make his stand among the living, and that detachment is no resolution for anything. This is what Big Daddy is so desperately trying to tell Brick in the second act, and this is what Margaret attempts to prove with the efforts to turn the lie that she is pregnant into truth. All the evils in the play do not detract from its moral integrity; rather they emphasize it. There is very little that is praiseworthy about life as it is portrayed in Cat On A Hot Tin Roof, but this is still no reason for rejecting it. One must live and choose carefully the values and relationships that will give life meaning. There is no positive indication that Brick will be able to act on this premise, but this does not invalidate the premise; it only emphasizes the difficulty of the struggle involved.

2. Compare the two versions of the third act.

Answer: There are two essential changes in the revised third act. Big Daddy reappears and Brick become more sympathetic toward Margaret. The old man returns in time to squelch Gooper's talk of taking over the estate, and then remains long enough to hear Margaret's pronouncement that she is pregnant. And Brick, as the act closes, evinces a greater willingness to help Margaret turn her lie into truth. He joins Margaret in fighting off the taunts of Gooper and Mae, and then acts more tenderly and sympathetically toward her when they are alone.

Each revision is important, the first for what it does not accomplish, and the second for what it does accomplish. Big Daddy is much too vital and strong a character to wholly disappear from the final act. Realizing this, the author brings him back. It is very much in the old patriarch's character to return and make a stand in the face of the terrifying truth he has received from Brick in the preceding act. But although Big Daddy returns, nothing dramatically is accomplished by this gesture. We gain no more insight into his character or into the situation. He tells an obscene joke to mollify Gooper, hears Margaret's exclamation about her coming child, and leaves, as if all that had occurred in the preceding act had nothing to do with him. It is a rather anemic and meaningless return for the most powerful and extraordinary character in the play.

The second alteration is a much more important one. The change in Brick's character alters the emphasis of the play. Instead of the play closing on Margaret's desperate effort to wrench life out of death by telling a lie and literally forcing Brick to turn it into a truth, it closes on Brick' s return to the world of the living. Thus the dominant character in the third act is no longer Margaret, but Brick, and the ending seems somewhat more positive than it was originally. But some questions may be asked about this shift in emphasis. First of all, is not the dilemma facing Margaret weakened by having Brick side with her? Margaret's choice between abandoning Brick to his deathlike existence or wresting life from him, in the form of a child, is a vital and moral dilemma. This dilemma is undermined by Brick's change in attitude. The entire situation becomes too glib and too facile, and the inherent drama in it is greatly diluted. Secondly, how believable is Brick's change of character? Is it possible for a conversation, no matter how lacerating or revealing, to cause such a rapid change in an individual as mentally and spiritually paralyzed as Brick? Not only is Brick's character rather unbelievably altered, but the initial depth of his catastrophe is greatly undermined. One may correctly wonder how profound Brick's dilemma is if he can undergo such a change so rapidly. The revised ending is more "positive," but less credible and less dramatic.

Orpheus Descending

1. Compare the three women in Val Xavier's life.

Answer: The most obvious comparison between Lady Torrance, Carol Cutrere, and Vee Talbott is that all three are desperately lonely people. Lady' s life with Jabe is hellish; she sold herself in marriage to a man she detested and she has been paying the price for this prostitution in a life of coldness and waste. Carol attempts to give definition to a wasted life by a frenzied sexual promiscuity, which ironically only makes her realize how empty and meaningless her life really is. And Vee Talbott tries to fill her loneliness and sexual frustration with a religious, visionary fervor which enables her to paint and thus create something meaningful out of the sterility of her existence. Thus, although the three are of very different character and temperament, they share a mutual loneliness and sense of waste in their lives which is overwhelming to all of them.

Another comparison between them is directly related to their loneliness. It is the desperate need of each for Val. The need is sexual, but it involves other elements apart from the sexual, also. For Lady, Val is symbolic of life itself, from which she has hidden for so many years. She wants him as a virile young man who will give her physical love; she also wants him as a person who will show her tenderness and warmth; and she wants him to father her child, and by so doing prove that she can still bear, still create life, even in the midst of death. Carol wants Val sexually also, but she also sees in him a kind of purity that is in direct contrast with her degeneracy. She is attracted to the wildness she sees in him. She sees in him a kind of symbolic passport out of corruption. Vee Talbott is also sexually attracted to Val, though she consciously does not know it. Just as she has sublimated her sexual frustration into religious exaltation, she sublimates her sexual attraction for Val into religious paintings which confuse him with Christ the Saviour. The other need Val begins to fill for Vee is her need for tenderness and understanding.

The catastrophe of the play lies in Val's ultimate inability to fill the needs of these women. He intentionally rejects Carol, fearing that involvement with her will only corrupt him. This rejection will prove tragically ironic, because at the play's close she offers him the only possible escape route. Val does not reject Lady or Vee, but again he becomes involved in a tragically ironic situation: it is precisely his involvement with these two women which seals his doom. Sheriff Talbott's ultimatum to him is the result of his tenderness to Vee, and his horrifying death is the result of his affair with Lady, which has made him hesitate too long before leaving. Lady, Carol, and Vee have needed Val desperately, but he proves ineffectual for all of them. He can only offer them temporary solace and love, but he cannot save them or himself from the evil which permeates their world and finally envelops them.

2. Discuss Williams' concept of the universe in Orpheus Descending.

Answer: The universe of Orpheus Descending is a terrifying one, very similar to the universe of Camino Real, Suddenly Last Summer, and Sweet Bird of Youth. Corruption is the keynote and it extends to all phases of life and love. Whatever is living is seen as capable of being corrupted and destroyed. Throughout the play, we are presented with various forms of corruption, slow and rapid, but equally inevitable.

Slow corruption is manifested by disease, here taking the form of cancer which is eating away Jabe's life. It symbolizes the corruption in the community, which is also being eaten away by bigotry, envy and hatred. And all this corruption is centered in man's sexual nature. Lady has been corrupted by David's abandonment, and has further degraded herself by her marriage to Jabe. Carol, who was once an idealist, is forced by the community into her promiscuous existence. For Vee Talbott, sexuality has been so perverted that it is hopelessly confused with religious exaltation. Of these three women, only Lady shows a possibility of redemption, but she needs a deliverer. It is her catastrophe that her savior proves to be too ineffectual in his detachment to vitally take part in the situation in which he finds himself. This sense of aloofness on Val's part is obvious throughout the play, but it is most clearly illustrated in the pivotal philosophical passage where Val tells Lady about the legless bird he had once seen. It is a bird which remains safe from destruction because it never lands on earth, but remains all its life in the sky, high above predatory human and animal life. Val is almost like one of these birds; his flaw is that he must land. The pure, wild maker of music, who has seen the earth's corruption and has risen above it through his art (the guitar has washed him clean), returns because of his kinship with the earth, and is again tainted and this time destroyed. He has not meant to enter into any relationship, but unlike the legless bird, he could not combat loneliness, and in reaching out to an equally lonely human being, he has been drawn into the inferno.

In Orpheus Descending there is an unmistakable sense of a division of the universe into light and darkness, with the earth cloaked in the latter. Whatever is human, whatever is of the earth, is prey to corruption. The sole escape is the shedding of human ties, loyalties, and relationships. This is a point of view that is quite antithetical to that of Cat On A Hot Tin Roof, but quite similar to that of Camino Real and Sweet Bird Of Youth. Kilroy, of Camino Real, is able to make his escape into a successful retreat because his world is fantasy and he can call on his good angel, Don Quixote, to lead him into the Terra Incognita. But Val Xavier can find no route of escape. He is trapped by his involvement. He has brought some beauty to the figurative under-kingdom, but he must perish because the earth is corrosive and tinged with evil. Orpheus Descending presents on the one hand, the pure, wild, uncorrupted nature of the detached musician, Val Xavier; on the other, it presents the degraded, corrupted, perverted denizens of the earth. Salvation lies in utter detachment. Anything short of this leads to destruction in the universe of Orpheus Descending.

Bibliography And Guide To Further Research

Works By Tennessee Williams

Five Young American Poets. 1944. Copyright by New Directions.

Any and all inquiries regarding performing rights for all of the Williams plays should be sent to Audrey Wood, at Ashley Famous Agency, Inc., 555 Madison Avenue, New York 22, N.Y.

Works About Tennessee Williams

Barnett, Lincoln. "Tennessee Williams," Life, XXXIV (Feb. 16, 1948). 113ff.

Engle, Paul. "A Locomotive Named Reality," The New Republic, CXXXII (Jan. 24, 1955), 26, 27.

Falk, Signi. Tennessee Williams. New York, 1961.

Gassner, John. "Tennessee Williams: Dramatist of Frustration, " College English, X (Oct. 1948), 1-7.

Jones, Robert E. "Tennessee Williams' Early Heroines," Modern Drama, II (1959), 211-219.

Lewis, R. C. "A Playwright Named Tennessee," The New York Times Magazine, Dec. 7, 1947, 19, 67, 69-70.

Moor, Paul. "A Mississippian Named Tennessee," Harper's Magazine, CXCVII (July, 1948), 63-71.

Nelson, Benjamin. Tennessee Williams: The Man and His Work: New York, 1961.

Popkin, Henry. "The Plays of Tennessee Williams," Tulane Drama Review, IV (Spring, 1960), 45-64.

Taylor, Harry. "The Dilemma of Tennessee Williams," Masses and Mainstream, I (April, 1948), 51-56.

Tischler, Nancy M. Tennessee Williams: Rebellious Puritan. New York, 1961.

Tynan, Kenneth. "American Blues, The Plays of Arthur Miller and Tennessee Williams," Encounter, II (May, 1954), 13-19.

Vowles, Richard B. "Tennessee Williams: The World of His Imagery" , Tulane Drama Review, III (Dec., 1958), 51-56.

Williams, Tennessee, Works of Tennessee Williams: Review Questions And Answers. , Monarch Notes, 01-01-1963.

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